前 言

　　清末至民国时期，随着社会形态的深刻变化和西方园林文化对中国的影响，以公园的大量出现为主要特征，中国园林的历史走向进入一个转折时期。1949年新中国成立以来，我国园林绿化事业发展迅速，形成了城乡园林蓬勃发展的新格局。改革开放以来，在快速发展的城乡一体化进程中，园林作为城市基础设施在改善生态环境、传承历史文脉、美化城市景观、促进文化交流、发挥游憩功能、带动区域旅游、推动经济发展等方面发挥了巨大的作用，中国园林进入了快速、健康、全面发展的新阶段。?

　　PREFACE?

　　During the pcriod of the late Qing dynasty and republic China,influenced by profound social changes and wes ern gardens,Chinese gardens and parks entered a new stage of development with a rise in public parks.Ever since 1949 when the PRC was founded,parks and green space have developed rapidly in both urban and rural areas.Since the reform and opening up,during the process of rapid urbanization,parks and green space as part of the city’s infrastructure plays a key huge role in improving en ironment passing down culture,beatifying the city,facilitating cultural exchanges and boosting regional tourism and economic development,Chinese parks and green space embrace a new stage of rapid,sound and comprehensive development.?

　　中国近代园林?

　　Contemporary Chinese Gardens?

　　受社会变革和西方文化的影响，中国近代园林成为中国园林发展历程中的转折期。近代园林在承袭了中国古典园林优秀传统的基础上，进入了以诚实公园建设为标志的新阶段。这一时期古典园林陆续向公众开放，兴建新的公共园林，出现了“中西合璧”和西方风格的园林。?

　　Influenced by social changes and western culture,premodern gardens were considered as transitions in the history of Chinese gardens.Based on the fine traditions of the classical Chinese gardens,premodern gardens entered a new stage featured by urban parks.During this period,classical Chinese gardens have been gardually opened to the public,public gardens and parks have been built up, and gardens of western and Chinese style appeared.?

　　西风东渐 文化交流?

　　鸦片战争后，沿海租界地区兴建了西方风格园林。受西方文化的影响，这一时期西方园林元素开始出现在中国私家园林之中，出现了营业性私园。与此同时，随着现代学校的创设与地方衙署等性质的改变，出现了校园、衙署等一些新的园林类型。?

　　After the Opium war,gardens of western style have been built up in coastal concessions.Influenced by western culture,private gardens of this period began to employ elements of western gardens and profit-making gardens appeared.Meanwhile,due to the establishment of schools and changed nature of government office buildings,schools and government office buildings emerged as new forms of gardens.?

　　承前启后 公园发展?

　　辛亥革命后，在民国政府的主导下，城市公共事业得以发展。皇家园林陆续向公众开放，完成了从禁苑到公园的功能转换。国人开始自主兴建县有公共开放性质的园林，成为首批近代城市公园，这样一种向公众开放的城市公园的诞生，是近代中国园林发展进程中的重要标志。?

　　After 1911 Revolution,the government of republic China led the development of the urban public?

　　China led the development of the urban public utilities.Royal gardens have been gradually opened to the public,transforming from serving the royal to serving the public.Across the country,parks have been built up to be opened to the public.These parks have been the first urban parks in China and they marked an important stage in the history of Chinese gardens.?

　　中国现代园林?

　　Modern Chinese Parks and Landscape?

　　1949年中华人民共和国成立后，毛泽东主席发出“绿化祖国”的号召，随着广泛的旧城改造和新城建设，城市园林绿化纳入国民经济发展纲要与城市总体规划建设之中，以北京为例，建国初期一次性划拨42块土地用于公园绿地建设。地方园林绿化建设呈现规模，改善了城市面貌。1978年改革开放后，第三次全国城市园林绿化工作会议召开，各地园林建设蓬勃开展，园林的功能不断提升，内涵不断扩大，文化不断丰富、类型不断多样，园林成为改善人居环境、维护城市生态的重要基础设施。2001年国务院召开了全国城市绿化工作会议并下发了《国务院关于加强城市绿化建设的通知》，园林建设进入大繁荣、大发展时期。?

　　After 1949 when the PRC was founded in 1949,Chairman Mao’s called for “greening the county”.Many cities have undergone renovations and developments,and against this backdrop,urban parks and greening have been incorporated into the country’s economic development plan and the overall blueprint for city development.Take Beijing city as an example.In the early stage of the birth of the PRC,42 plots of land have been allocated for parks.Large-scale constructions of green space and parks have transformed the out look of cities.In 1978 after the policy of reform and opening up was introduced,the Third National Conference on Urban Parks and Greening was held.As a result,parks and green space construction was in full seing across the country.With more functions,enriched cultural contents and diverse styles,parks and green space serve as an important infrastructure to improve people’s living environment and to protect the city’s eco-environment.In 2001,the State Council held a conference on the nation’s urban greenery and issued the Notice of State Council on Strengthening Urban Greeneries,leading to a surge in parks and green space construcions.?

　　公园建设 日新月异?

　　建国以来，各地历史名园得以保护与修复，并陆续对公众开放。同时各地兴建了一批以人民公园、解放公园为代表的城市综合性公园。改革开放以来，人们对物质生活和精神生活质量提出更高的要求，历史名园得到更加严格的?；?，以颐和园、天坛为代表的皇家园林与以苏州园林为代表的私家园林列入世界文化遗产名录。现代城市公园建设数量大幅增加，功能更加完善，成为城市空间的“绿色客厅”。公园在传承文化、美化环境、游憩休闲、科普教育、生态安全、防灾避险等方面发挥了重要作用。?

　　After the founding of the PRC,the historic famous gardens across the country have been restored and consecutively opened to the public.Meanwhile,many parks of comprehensive functions have been built up nationwide under the name of people’s parks and liberation parks.After reform and opening up, the historic famous gardens have been preserved better in response to people’s higher material and spiritual demands.Imperial gardens such as the Summer Palace and Imperial Summer Resort,and private gardens such as Humble Administrator’s Garden in Suzhou have been enlisted into the World Cultural Heritage.Modern urban parks enjoys a boost in their number,category and functions,taking on the role of the “living room of city”.The parks plays a vital role in providing space for recreational activities,improving ecological environment,passing down culture,disseminating knowledge and preventing disasters.?

　　教育科技 发展创新?

　　新中国成立以来，随着园林事业的快速发展，在园林科研、学科建设、成果推广以及技术应用方面取得了令人瞩目的成就，园林行业科研成果先后荣获多项国家科学进步奖，处办理一大批园林专著，在理论研究、技术创新、植物栽培、环境建设等方面取得了丰硕的成果，培养了大批专业人才，学科教育有了长足发展，目前全国已有近200所高等院校设立了风景园林（类）专业。2011年3月国务院学位委员会、教育部公布《学位授予和人才培养学科目录》“风景园林学”成为国家一级学科。?

　　After the founding of the PRC,with the rapid development of landscape architectural profession,remarkable achievements have been made in parks and landscape research,the landscape architectural discipline development,results promotion,technological innovation and environment protection.The achievements of the profession have consecutively been rewarded the national scientific and technological progress awards and a host of books on the discipline have been published.Headways have also been made in theory research,technological innovation,plant cultivation and environmental protection.The discipline has developed a lot and produced many professional talents.At present,200 colleges and universities have set up the major of landscape architecture.In 2011,the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council and the Ministry of Education have jointly issued Degree-granting and Personnel Training Catalog,in which landscape architecture has been made first class discipline.?

前言Preface

　　中国是一个有着五千年悠久历史的文明古国,钟灵毓秀的大地山川,积淀深厚的历史文化,孕育出中国古典园林这样一个源远流长/博大精深的园林体系.中国园林是中华民族优秀传统文化的重要组成部分,它以丰富多彩的内容和高超的艺术水平在世界造园艺术中独树一帜,其独特的文化精神内涵和辉煌的艺术成就为世界所瞩目.???????????????

　　China has an ancient civilization with a five-thousand-year history.On this vast and rich land, many outstanding talents emerged and a splendid culture was born, nurturing a time-honored, profound and extensive system of the classical gardens. As an important component of the fine Chinese traditional cultures, the classical gardens secured a unique position in the world’s gardening art with its rich content and appealing artistic charm. The unique cultural and spiritual sense and magnificent artistic achievements of the gardens have gained the classical gardens worldwide attention.

中国园林的生成

Beginnings of the Chinese Gardens?

??? 商周秦汉是中国古典园林从萌芽/产生而逐渐成长的时期,历经千余年.在此时期,造园活动虽然规模较大,但演进变化较为缓慢,中国园林处于发展的初期阶段.

　　During the Shang, Zhou, Qin and Han period, the classical Chinese gardens surfaced, came into being and gradually developed. In this millennium, gardens were contructed on a large scale, but their style has evolved relatively slowly, given that, this period is considered as the early stage of the classical gardens.

　　天地山川? 园林寻踪

　　“囿”、“圃”、“台”是中国园林的原始形态。人们山水审美观念的确立、天人合一思想、君子比德思想和神仙思想等意识形态方面的因素，促成了生成期中国古典园林的发展。

　　During the Shang, Zhou, Qin and Han period, the classical Chinese gardens surfaced, came into being and gradually developed. In this millennium, gardens were contructed on a large scale, but their style has evolved relatively slowly, given that, this period is considered as the early stage of the classical gardens.

　　崇台峻基? 苑囿之渐

　　公园前11世纪的商末周初，王、诸侯、卿、大夫等开始兴建离宫别馆，出现了规模较大的囿和台，如殷纣王的沙丘苑台和周文王的灵囿、灵台、灵沼等。

　　In the late Shang and early Zhou period, the 11th century BC to be exact, kings, vassals, officers and scholars started to build palaces and villas for short stays, in which there were many large “yous” and “tai” of “dunes” for King Zhou of Shang and Ling You, Ling Tai and Ling Zhao for King Wen of Zhou.

　　宫苑伊始? 华美恢弘

　　秦、汉是园林发展的重要阶段，相应于中央集权政治体制的确立，出现了宫苑这个园林临幸，并成为该时期造园活动的主流。这一时期的宫苑规?；趾?、建筑华美、功能多样，特别是“一池三山”的山水格局，对后世的皇家造园和都城建设影响深远。

　　The Qin and Han Dynasties are important stages for the development of gardens. In this period the centralized political system was established, leading to the appearance of imperial palace-gardens, which became the mainstream of the gardens at that time. They were magnificent, luxutious and multi-functional. The structure of “one pond and three mountains” exerted profound influence on the later development of imperial gardens and capital cities.

　　庄园孕育? 私园初现

??? 西汉以来，随着农业耕作技术的提高，庄园经济快速发展，贵族、官僚、庄园主等积累了大量财富，开始营建私家园林，并已见诸文献记载。

　　Ever since the Western Han Dynasty when the farming techniques improved, the manor economy developed quickly. The noblemen, officers and owners of manors amassed huge fortune and began to build private gardens, the records of which can be found in documentations.

中国园林的转折

Transitions of the Chinese Gardens

　　东汉、魏晋南北朝是中国园林发展中一个承前启后的转折时期，佛教传入、道教出现，诸家思想的活跃促进了艺术领域的开拓，对这一时期的中国园林发展产生了较大的影响?！霸傲帧币淮慰汲鱿?，造园活动不再追求宏大的规模，取法自然，造园趋于写实与写意相结合，隐逸思想得以充分体现，异彩纷呈，初步形成了皇家、私家、寺观园林体系。

　　Eastern Han, Wei-Jin and Northern-Southern Dynasties are a transition period. During that period, the introduction of Buddhism, the emergence of Taoism and the boom of various schools of thoughts have injected impetus to the arts development and exerting tremendous influence on the development of Chinese gardens. The word “garden” was first adopted. The size of the garden was not the aim itself any more. The design of the garden was a nature-based combination of realism and romanticism so that a sense of detachment and distance can be generated. It is during this period that a system of imperial gardens, private gardens and temple gardens was established.

　　道法自然寄情山水

　　受儒、释、道社会思想主流的影响，寄情山水、崇尚隐逸成为社会风尚。人们对大自然风景的审美观念趋于成熟，山水文化、山水绘图等艺术得到大发展，与造园相关的建筑、理水等技术更为进步，观赏植物普遍引种，中国古代园林的发展进入转折期

　　Influenced by mainstream social thoughts such as Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, people aspired for intimacy with nature and a secluded life away from worldly concerns and developed a relatively mature aesthetics on nature. Arts like literature and paintings on mountain and water boomed. Gardening-related technologies such as water arrangement and architecture developed tremendously and it became more common to grow ornamental plants. It is on such a backdrop that the classical Chinese gardens enter the transition process.

　　华林仙苑濠濮间想

　　东汉、三国、两晋、南北朝时期，在北方的邺城、洛阳和南方的建康，皇家园林较为集中，并开始纳入都城的规划建设中?；始以傲值墓δ芤泊俞髁酝ㄉ窈蜕鸾プ杂紊图那?、栖息为主，园林创作则从模拟神仙世界更多地转向世俗题材。

　　During the Eastern Han, Three Kingdoms, Jin and Northern-Southern period, imperial gardens were concentrated in City Ye in the north, Luo Yang and Jian Kang in the south and the construction of imperial gardens was incorporated into the planning of capital cities. The function of imperial gardens turned away from hunting and production to entertainment, sightseeing and residences and the theme from legends of immortals to real life.

　　佛道盛行? 寺园一体

　　随着佛道的盛行和佛寺道观的大量出现，寺观园林作为一个新的类型迅速发展，表现为三种形式，一是园林作为寺观的附园；二是寺观庭院的园林化；三是寺观外围自然环境的园林化。寺观园林的兴盛对风景名胜的发展起到了推动作用。

　　As Buddhism and Taoism thrived, many temples emerged and gardens in temples developed rapidly with three major forms: gardens being affiliated to the temples, the courtyard of temples taking the form of gardens or the surroundings of the temples taking the form of gardens. The boom of temple gardens promoted the development of scenery spots.

　　宛若自然? 归园田居

　　随着士族、贵族势力的壮大和士大夫隐逸潮流的风行，私家园林作为一个独立的类型异军突起，并出现两种倾向：一种是以贵族官僚为代表的崇尚华丽的倾向；另一种是以文人名士为代表的追求隐逸和山林泉石之乐的倾向，成为后世文人园林的先声。在这一时期，城郊山水成为文人雅士游赏聚集的场所。

　　As the noblemen and officer-scholars gained more power and more and more scholars aspired for a detached life away from worldly concerns, private gardens developed as an independent category with two tendencies: one is to pursue luxury and splendor represented by the noblemen and government officers and the other to pursue a detached and natural life free from worldly concerns represented by the scholars, and the gardens of the latter tendency became the foundations of the later scholar gardens. During this period, suburban sceneries served as venues where scholars gathered for entertainment and sightseeing.

　　兰亭修禊

　　魏晋时期，文人名流经常聚会的一些近郊风景浏览地，具有了公共园林的性质。东晋穆帝永和九年三月三日，王羲之和当时名士孙统、谢安等42人，为过“修禊日”宴集于绍兴兰亭，列坐于曲水两侧，将酒殇置于清流之上，任其顺流而下，停在谁的面前，谁即取饮，彼此相乐。此时期文人名流的雅集盛会和诗文唱和流露出审美趣味，给当时和后世的园林发展以深远的影响。

中国园林的繁盛

Golden age For the Chinese Gardens

　　隋唐时代，园林创作达到了一个高峰时期?；始以傲值摹盎始移伞币丫耆纬伞Ｋ鹿墼傲指邮浪谆?。私家园林追求个性特征，向文人化的园林创作方向发展。以诗入园、因画成景的做法在唐代已渐成熟。

　　In the Sui and Tang Dynasties, creation of gardens has reached an unprecedented level. The imperial gardens vividly illustrated the imperial grandeur, temple gardens became more secularized and the private gardens more characteristic and more closer to the design of scholar gardens. Practices such as dedicating gardens to poems and designing the garden scenery after paintings have matured in the Tang Dynasty.

　　宏大兼容? 诗情画意

　　隋唐是中国封建社会繁荣鼎盛的时期，政治稳定，经济发达，文化艺术盛极一时，绚丽多彩的文学、史学、建筑、雕塑、绘画、书法交相辉映，山水画、山水诗文、山水园林这三个艺术门类得到了进一步的融合，“外师造化，中得心源”的绘画理论开始深刻影响着园林艺术创作。中国古典园林的发展达到了繁盛时期。

　　The Sui and Tang Dynasties are prime time of the Chinese feudal societies with a stable political environment, developed economy and splendid art achievements. Influenced by diverse schools in literature, painting and calligraphy, three art strains including the painting, literature and gardening on Shanshui (mountains and water) further developed. The principle of painting that artistic creations should follow the law of nature and also portray what the artist felt deeply influenced gardening arts. In this situation, Chinese gardens booded at that period of time.

　　大唐宫苑? 曲江宴集

　　隋唐时期的皇家园林集中建置在两京——长安和洛阳。该时期皇家园林的建设数量之多、规模之大远远超过魏晋南北朝时期，已经形成大内御苑、行宫御苑、离宫御苑三个各具特色的类别，整体的规划设计和艺术水平都有了很大的提升，对后世皇家园林的营建影响深远。君民在曲江同乐成为长安城市风情的历史画卷。

　　In the Sui and Tang Dynasties, imperial gardens were concentrated in two capital cities, Chang’an and Luoyang. Imperial gardens at that time outnumbered and outsized the ones in Wei-Jin and Northern-Southern Dynasties. There were three categories including imperial gardens as imperial palaces, as retreats and as villas for short stays. The overall planning, design and artistic level have been uplifted greatly, exerting a profound influence on the later constructions of imperial gardens. The ruler and the people enjoying life together in Qvjiang was a harmonious scene in Chang’an city.

　　士人清雅? 山池之胜

　　盛唐之世为私家造园的发展创造了条件。文人参与造园蔚然成风，这一时期的私家园林将更多的诗画情趣赋予其中，甚至衙署内也多有山池花木的点缀，为宋代文人园林的兴盛奠定了基础。

　　The prosperity of the Tang Dynasty has created conditions for the development of private gardens. Poetic sense and artistic charm were included in the gardens. Many scholars have participated in designing gardens, which boasted the senses of poetry and paintings and even in many government officers back then, there were miniature mountains, ponds, flowers and trees as decorations, laying foundation for the boom of scholar gardens in the Song Dynasty.

　　参禅悟道? 建寺名山

　　隋唐时期，寺观大量兴建，寺观园林与自然山水融为一体。由于寺观园林本身所具有的开放性，寺观园林既具有宗教活动的功能，又具有风景游览的功能，至今仍是我国风景名胜区和世界遗产地的重要历史依据。

　　During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, with an increase of temples, temple gardens were better integrated with nature. As the temples were open to public, temple gardens served as not only the venue for religious activities but also places for sightseeing and entertainment. Up till now, they are important sources for the nation’s major national scenic and historic interest area and the world heritage sites.

　　文化繁荣? 海外传播

??? 唐代的长安是国际性的对外开放城市，外商、外交使节、留学生、学问僧云集，包括中国园林艺术在内的中国文化通过他们传播海外，影响深远。

　　Chang’an in the Tang Dynasty was an internationally open city, which attracted many foreign businessmen, diplomatic personnel, students and visiting monks and it is through these people that the Chinese cultures including Chinese gardening cultures were introduced abroad with their influence spread afar.

中国园林的成熟

The Maturity of The Chinese Gardens

　　宋代以来，文化繁荣昌盛，科学技术长足发展，促成了园林艺术的全面发展。这一时期，文人参与造园并赋予园林诗情画意，从这一时期的山水画与诗词赋可以看出，文人园林的发展最为突出，并且影响到皇家园林、寺观园林的建设。叠石、理水、植物、建筑等造园要素全面提升，园林创作更加重视意境和内涵，艮岳就是这一时期的杰出代表，中国古典园林的风格完全成熟。

　　Ever since the Song Dynasty, culture prospered. The progress in science and technology has contributed to the thriving of garden arts. During this period, scholar gardens involved themselves in garden design, adding poetic and artistic touch to the gardens. From the landscape paintings and poetries at that time we can see scholar gardens stood out, influencing imperial gardens and temple gardens. Elements such as pilled-up rocks, water, buildings and plants were upgraded. With a focus on the aroma and cultural sense, the classical Chinese gardens developed a mature style with a typical example being Genyue imperial garden.

　　术业专攻? 写意山水

　　宋代文化艺术空前繁荣，园林建筑丰富多样，园林观赏花木栽培技术进一步提高，出现了专以叠石为业的技工，造园技术成熟。这一时期山水画创作对园林风格产生重要影响，诗画融入园林，追求园林空间的意境创造。

　　Culture and arts in the Song Dynasty reached a level never seen before. The style of architecture was richer, the flower and plant cultivation techniques further developed and craftsmen on rock-piling emerged, ushering in the stage of maturity of the gardens. In this period, landscape paintings tremendously influenced the garden styles, which aimed to cultivate the cultural aroma and imaginative senses of the garden space.

　　文园兴盛? 简远精雅

??? 文人园林的兴盛促成了中国园林艺术的重大升华。在内省的哲学与文学思想影响下，文人园林具有景象简远、布局舒朗、天然雅致等特点，体现出人与自然的和谐。

　　The boom of scholar gardens uplifted the artistic level of Chinese gardens. Influenced by the philosophy on self-reflection and the thought of scholars, scholar gardens featured simple scenes, clear layouts, being elegant and natural and reflecting the harmony between man and nature.

　　艮岳琼林? 凤凰山色

　　两宋时期皇家园林集中在东京和临安两地。受文人园林的影响，宫苑的建设开始以山水创作自然之趣为主题，出现了艮岳那样划时代的写意山水园作品，在中国园林史上占有重要的位置。

　　During the Song Dynasty, imperial gardens were concentrated in cities of Dongjing and Lin’an. Bearing a heavy imprint of the style of scholar gardens, imperial gardens have shifted to focus on nature as their themes, resulting in epoch-making works such as Genyue imperial garden, which looms large in the history of Chinese gardens.

　　燕山风月? 琼岛春阴

　　辽代升唐幽州为幽都府，立为南京（亦称燕京，实为陪都），金则继而扩建为中都，均相应建设皇家宫苑。元于中都的东北郊，以金代离宫大宁宫为中心另建新城，称大都。元大都都以琼岛为中心的规划为明清北京城奠定了基础，其各类园林建设亦成为明清时期空前兴盛的先声。

　　In the Liao Dynasty, Youzhou was expanded to be Youdufu, and Nanjing (today’s Beijing) was made the capital city. In the Jin Dynasty, the capital city was further expanded to be Zhongdu. Along with the expansion of the capital city came the construction of imperial gardens. In the Yuan Dynasty, in the northeastern suburb of Zhongdu, a new capital centering the resort palace Daqing palace of the Jin Dynasty was built up under the name of Dadu (meaning big capital). The city planning of Dadu of the Yuan Dynasty put Qiongdao at the center, and such planning has laid foundation for the development of Beijing city in the Ming and Qing Dynasty. Gardens of all styles in this period promised a boom of garden construction in the Ming and Qing Dynasty.

　　园林寺观? 公共游憩

　　这一时期，园林进一步文人化，很多寺观园林向世人开放，自然山水园林逐步发展，形成以佛寺名胜为中心的公共游览地?！抖┟位肌芳窃亓丝庠傲挚诺那榭觥?/p>

　　During this period, many gardens took on the characteristics of scholar gardens and many temple gardens have been opened to the public. With a gradual development of natural landscaping gardens, temple gardens became temple-centered scenery spots for public visits.

中国园林的集盛

Peak of The Chinese Gardens

　　明清时期是中国古典园林发展史上的又一个高峰，园林形式更加丰富，造园技艺更加成熟，帝王的南巡北狩，从塞外到江南，促进皇家园林、私家园林和寺观园林的繁荣，出现了一批不同地域、风格迥异的园林作品，留存至今的许多明清历史名园被列为世界文化遗产。同时，优秀造园家和园林相关论著集中出现。长期积淀的深厚传统文化，成就了中国古典园林的辉煌。

　　The Ming and Qing Dynasties embraced another peak in the history of classical Chinese gardens as this period witnessed richer garden styles and more mature gardening. The Emperors’ visits to the south and their hunting activities in the north, ranging from frontiers to thesouthern reaches of Yangtze River, contributed to the prosperity of imperial gardens, private gardens and temple gardens. Gardens in different regions with different styles emerged and many famous gardens of the Ming and Qing Dynasties have been enshrined as world culture heritages. Meanwhile, many outstanding garden architects and books on gardens also appeared. Splendid classical Chinese gardens have been attributable to the time honored traditional culture.

　　承德避暑山庄

　　位于河北省承德市北部，是清代皇家园林中最大的一座。始建于康熙四十二年（公元1703年），历经清康熙、雍正、乾隆三朝，耗时八十七年建成。承德避暑山庄大小建筑有120多群组，其中康熙以四字组成36景，乾隆以三字组成36景，即避暑山庄72景。

　　城市发展? 园林兴盛

　　明清时期，城市的数量和规模较前代有了更大增长，城市面貌更加繁荣，大规模的造园带了城市空间结构的变化，对城市规划和城市休闲地的发展产生了重要的影响。明清两代，北京作为当时的政治中心，皇家园林建设进入了高峰时期。与此同时，以江南为代表的经济文化中心，私家园林的造园活动规模空前。

　　The Ming and Qing Dynasties have seen a boom in the number and scale of the cities, which have further developed. Large-scale garden constructions have brought about changes in urban space structure, impacting city planning and the development of city recreation spaces. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties with Beijing acting as political center, construction of imperial gardens have reached a peak. Meanwhile, economic and cultural centers represented by southern reaches of Yangtze River have embraced an unprecedented scale of private garden constructions.

　　移天缩地? 北国江南

　　这一时期的皇家园林，在建设规模及艺术造诣上都达到了历史上的高峰，精湛的造园技艺结合宏大的园林规模，充分彰显了皇家风范。园林的总体规划、设计不断创新，全面引进江南民间的造园技艺，形成了南北艺术的大融糅，出现了避暑山庄、西苑三海、三山五园这些具有里程碑性质的、优秀的大型园林作品。

　　During this period, imperial gardens have reached summit both in terms of their scale and artistic level. A combination of skilled gardening and grand scale showcased the magnificence of imperial gardens. Constant innovations in the overall planning and design concepts, coupled with the introduction of gardening skills used in private gardens in the southern reaches of Yangtze River have contributed to the integration of southern and northern gardens, which has resulted in the births of outstanding and milestone gardens such as Chengde Imperial Summer Resort, XiyuanSanhai (West Imperial Garden and Three Lakes), and Three Mountains and Five Gardens in Beijing.

　　私园勃兴? 百花呈艳

　　明清两代，民间的造园活动遍及于全国，各地出现了不同风格的园林，形成北方、江南、岭南、川蜀、闽南、少数民族等多种地方风格，名园林立，如勺园、清华园、拙政园、余荫山房、罨画池、罗布林卡等。

　　During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, private garden constructions swept across the nation with different styles appearing in different regions. The northern region, southern reaches of Yangtze River, regions south of the five Ridges, Sichuan region, southern region of Fujian Province and regions inhabited by minority groups all have different styles of gardens. Many famous gardens have been built, such as Spoon Garden, Qinghua Garden, Humble Administor’s Garden, Yuyin Garden, Yanhuachi Garden and Norbulingka (precious stone garden).

　　园林渗透? 人居雅境

　　明清时期，中国古典园林的理念、布局手法及其元素，渗透在理想居住环境营造的方方面面，衙署、书院、住宅、祠堂、会馆、市肆等，均通过山石水池的点缀、花草树木的配植和亭阁轩廊的构筑，具有了附属或局部的园林形态组合，多具有公共性。

　　During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the concepts layouts and elements of classical Chinese gardens have found their way living environments such as government office buildings, schools, residences, memorial temples, halls, cities and public houses, all of which employed mountain, rock, water and ponds as decorations, planted flowers and trees and built pavilions and halls. The combination of affiliated gardens and partial gardens appeared. Some public gardens, apart from their tradition functions as to provide scholars and citizens with venues to play and relax, also taken on the function as venues for rest and recreational activities.

　　匠心独运? 名家辈出

??? 明清时期，随着南北造园活动的日益兴盛，涌现出了许多优秀的造园世家，造园专著不断丰富，园林人物多有记载，成为造园极盛期的一个重要标志。 　　

　　During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the boom in garden constructions has led to the peak of scholar gardens. As a result, many outstanding garden architects have emerged. As their experiences accumulated, those scholars and gardens architects have put forward many theories and written books, which are important symbols for the peak of garden art.

　　方外梵刹? 人境壶天

　　明清时期，寺观营建主体日趋多元，帝王敕建、官署营造和僧人募集促进了寺观园林建设发展。民俗活动在寺观日益多元，寺院园林和外围山水环境进一步融合，寺观园林成为重要的风景游赏地。

　　During the Ming and Qing Dynasties,the emperors, officials and scholars began to participate in the construction of temple gardens so that the temple gardens have been further secularized and taken on more functions. Temple gardens have been further integrated with the surrounding natural sceneries to gradually become important tourist spots and places for folk activities.?

结束语

Conclusion

　

　　中国古典园林的产生和发展反映了先民对理想生活空间和精神世界的向往和追求，虽由人做，宛自天开。从先秦到晚清，中国古典园林经历了漫长的发展历程，以皇家园林、私家园林、寺观园林为主体，逐渐形成了独具特色的园林体系和异彩纷呈的地域风格，集中体现了中华民族“道法自然”、“天人合一”等哲学思想，以其丰富的内涵和卓越的成就，彰显了中国传统文化的独特魅力，在人类文明史上谱写了一部创造理想家园的灿烂篇章。

　　The birth and development of classical Chinese gardens have reflected ancient Chinese people’s aspiration for an ideal living space and rich spiritual life. So comes the rule that the garden is created by the human hand, but it should appear as if created by nature. From the early stage of the Qin Dynasty to the late Qing Dynasty, classical Chinese gardens have traveled a long journey to embrace a unique system mainly consisting of imperial gardens, private gardens and temple gardens. Gardens in different regions possess different styles and characteristics. Classical Chinese gardens reflect philosophical thoughts of Chinese people such as “Tao following the nature” and “harmony between man and nature”. With their rich contents and brilliant achievements, classical Chinese gardens showcased the unique charm of Chinese traditional culture and went down as a glorious chapter in mankind’s history of pursuits to build an ideal home.

----------摘自中国园林博物馆中国古典园林厅?

世界园林历史,经历了原始文明,农业文明,工业文明和信息文明四大文明阶段。?

　　原始文明阶段?

　　人类社会的原始文明大约持续了二百多万年.人类树巢而居,茹毛饮血,巢穴而居,采集渔猎.人类对大自然环境的被动适应状态,在生存演化过程中,人类被动植物的形态,色泽等外观特征所吸引并有了心灵感应,赋有生命意义,有了动植物崇拜.原始文明后期,人类农业和聚居的部落,园圃种植,鸟兽养殖.部落附近及房前屋届有了果园,菜圃,畜养鸟兽场所.逐渐满足了人们祭祀温饱需要,园林得到孕育,进入萌芽状态.?

　　其园林萌芽状态的特点为:种植,养殖,观赏不分;为全体部落成员共管共享;主观为了祭祀崇拜和解决温饱问题,而客观有观赏功能.?

　　农业文明阶段?

　　距今大约1万年前,在亚洲和非洲的一些大河冲积平原和三角洲地区,农业的长足发展,人类进入了以农耕为主的农业文明阶段,果园,菜圃,兽场亦分化为供生产为主的果蔬园圃和供观赏为主的花园,猎苑.伴随农业生产力的进一步发展,产生了城镇,国都和手工业,商业,使建筑技术不断提高,为大规模兴造园林提供了必要条件?

　　自然地域,文化体系演化形成世界园林体系.文化体系的主要影响因素有种族,宗教,风俗习惯,语言文字系统,历史地理和文化交流等,尤其以自然地域,种族,宗教文化,语言文字系统影响最大.?

　　世界园林体系划分为欧洲园林体系,伊斯兰园林体系和中国园林体系三大体系.?

　　*欧洲园林体系?

　　欧洲园林,又称为西方园林.主要是以古埃及和古希腊园林为渊源以法国古典主义园林和英国自然风景式园林两大流派,以人工美的规则式园林和自然美的自然式园林为造园风格,思想理论,艺术造诣精湛独到.?

　　欧洲园林覆盖面广,它以欧洲本土为中心,势力范围囊括欧洲,北美,南美,澳大利亚等四大洲,对南非,北非,西亚,东亚等地区的园林发展和当代亦产生了重要影响.?

　　欧洲园林的两大流派都有自己明显的风格特征.规则式园林:气势恢宏,视线开阔,严谨对称,构图均衡,花坛,雕像,喷泉等装饰丰富,体现庄重典雅,雍容华贵的气势.?

　　自然风景式园林取消了园林与自然之间的界线,将自然为主体引入到园林,排除人工痕迹,体现一种自然天成,返璞归真的艺术.?

　　*伊斯兰园林体系?

　　伊斯兰园林,是以古巴比伦和古波斯园林为渊源,十字形庭园为典型布局方式,封闭建筑与特殊节水灌溉系统相结合,富有精美细密的建筑图案和装饰色彩的阿拉伯园林.?

　　伊斯兰园林以幼发拉底,底格利斯两河流域及美索不达米亚平原为中心,以阿拉伯世界为范围,横跨欧,亚,非三大洲,以印度,西班牙中世纪园林风格最为典型,对世界各国园林艺术风格的变迁有很大的影响力.?

　　伊斯兰园林通常面积较小,建筑封闭,十字形的林阴路构成中轴线,全园分割成四区.园林中心,十字形道路交汇点布设水池,象征天堂.园中沟渠明暗交替,盘式涌泉滴水,又分出几何形小庭园,每个庭园的树木相同.彩色陶瓷马赛克图案在庭园装饰中广泛应用.?

　　*中国园林体系?

　　中国园林尊崇与自然和谐为美的生态原则,属于山水风景式园林范畴,以非规则式园林为基本特征,园林建筑与山水环境有机融合,自然和谐,浑然一体,涵蕴人伦教化,诗情画意的写意山水园林.?

　　中国大陆三面环山,一面濒海的独特的地理环境,长期的中央集权,礼仪制度和农业本位文化,文明远远高于世界诸国文化,以泱泱大国自居,小视四方,中国园林自诞生以后,在自己特殊的国情和历史文化背景下自我发展.从其独到的创世纪说到三代时期的囿,秦汉时期的苑,魏晋六朝的自然山水园林,唐宋时代的全景式写意山水园林,最后达到明清时代浓缩自然山水,以小见大的高度象征性写意园林阶段.从明朝中期始,私家园林逐渐分化,先有江南园林脱颖而出,北方园林接踵其后,岭南园林增其华丽.三大区域园林相互影响,相互兼容,使中国园林的类型和风格不断拓展与深化,中国园林不像欧洲园林那样,风格剧烈复合变异,而是不断传承发展,以东方独有的文化及造园思想理论甚至影响西方.?

　　中国园林特点主要有:?

　　1).本于自然,高于自然 自然风景以山,水为地貌基础,山,水,植物乃是构成自然风景的基本要素,中国园林绝非一般地利用或者简单地模仿这些构景要素的原始状态,而是有意识地加以改造,调整,加工,剪裁,从而表现一个精练概括的自然,典型化的自然.惟其如此,本于自然而又高于自然并伦理化,道德化,园林要素与之结合意蕴其中,尤为突出.?

　　2).建筑美与自然美有机融合——与自然和谐为美 中国园林建立在尊重自然的基础之上,"阴阳五行说"被誉为世界最早的生态学,建筑能够把地域自然与山,水,花木,鸟兽等造园要素有机地组织在一系列风景画面之中.突出彼此谐调,互相补充的积极的一面,限制彼此对立,互相排斥的消极的一面.把后者转化为前者,中轴对称的规整式构图于宫室寺观建筑,却天工人巧,为中国园林建筑的特殊形式.在园林总体上达到一种人工与自然高度和谐的 "天人合一"与"自然和谐为美"的哲理境界.?

　　3)中国园林漾漾充溢着诗情画意;拥有着独具魅力的意境创造?

　　中国园林影响了汉文化体系,也深深影响了日本.?

　　佛教从我国传入日本,特别是汉化的禅宗传入日本后,与日本特色的神道教融合,形成了日本特色:追求精神上"净,空,无"的禅文化,成为突破中国园林形式的切人点.日本早期"枯山水,除选用砂,石之外,还含有小块地被植物或小型灌木,如修剪整齐的黄杨,杜鹃等.后期的"枯山水园"竭尽其简洁,纯净,无树无花,只有几尊自然天成的石块,满园耙出纹理的细砂,凝聚成一方禅宗净土."茶室庭园"则显示出极精致,极正式的氛围,中国的茶文化在日本发展为"茶道",庭园布设精美的石制艺术品,主人石,客人石,刀挂石,石灯笼,石水钵等,逼真磊落,不带一点世俗尘埃,表达了日本人对"纯净,空寂,无极"境界的追求.?

　　纵观日本园林的历史演进,日本园林受中国园林影响至远至深,尽管在某些方面有独特的造诣,甚至反过来影响中国园林,但它最终并没有脱离中国园林体系.?

　　工业文明阶段?

　　无?

　　信息文明阶段?

　　促进了公共园林,公共绿地,城市与生态景观的艺术发展,促进了人类任何"工程"与自然生存环境景观活动的艺术思考.?

　　文化多元化,全球一体化的当代,人类环境建设与赖以生存的自然生态环境理论思考,?；ぷ匀换肪?维护生态平衡为核心的可持续发展理论深入人心.?

　　造园时代：?

　　欧美国家在18世纪中叶以前手工业时期，只有供皇帝使用的猎苑(Hunting Park)(相当于中国周文王之囿)、皇家营苑、王子或贵族的城堡园林、贵族的别墅(Villa)，园林、寺庙园林、富裕阶层...?

　　风景造园时期(Landscape Gardening)?

　　18世纪中叶，欧洲发生工业革命，接着出现了城市化，城市居民厌倦了那种精雕细刻、修剪整形、中轴对称、了无生趣...?

　　在工业革命与城市化以后，西方园林学科的发展?

　　奥姆斯特德与Landscape Architecture?

　　美国伯克利加州大学的环境规划设计学院劳莱教授(Prof．M．Laurie)在其著作《An Intrnduetion To Land-scape Architecture?

　　国际风景园林师联合会(IFLA)与Landscape Architecture?

　　美国是世界上工业化发展最快的国家，早在1789年，华盛顿当选为第一任总统，他虽然是在纽约宣誓就职的，但他深感美国的特...?

　　国际大地规划教育学术会议与Landscape Planning?

　　1986年3月，在美国哈佛大学设计研究生院举办的国际大地规划教育学术会议(World Conference。n Education For Landscape Planning)明确阐述了关于Landscape Planning学科的含义：?

　　在欧洲工业革命以前，中国造园艺术的发展?

　　中国古典园林艺术以及"人与大地"关系的古典哲学是人类文化的典范?

　　国际大地规划与风景园林规划设计师联合会(IFLA)的第一任会长和终生名誉会长英国杰列科爵士(SirG．A Jellicoe)曾经在1985／861FLA年报发表论文《伊甸园的探索》?

　　中国是世界上最早在国都中心建设大园林的国家?

　　全世界的文明古国，除了中国以外，从埃及、巴比伦、希腊、印度到罗马帝国，在城市中心，一般都是没有园林的...?

　　中国的杭州与西湖是全世界最早、最美的园林城市(Garden City)?

　　园林城市(Garden City)是令人类人居环境（ekistics)的最高理想。Garden City这个名词，是由西方人提出来的。?

　　中国是世界上最早用"大自然’为原型进行园林创作的国家?

　　世界上最早的园林设计，不但埃及、巴比伦、希腊是整形几何式的，中国也不例外是整形几何式的。?

　　中国是世界上最早出现"造园’这个行业、专业和 学科的国家?

　　罗马帝国到公元117年，达到全盛时期，哈德良大帝才开始在城市郊区修建了哈德良山庄。?

　　景观规划思想发展史?

　　公元前三千多年——地中海东部沿岸古埃及产生世界上最早的规则式园林?

　　公元前五百年——古希腊的雅典城邦及罗马别墅园宅园?

　　公元七世纪——阿拉伯人建立的伊斯兰大帝国?

　　公元十四世纪——伊斯兰园林的鼎盛 印度莫卧儿园林?

　　公元十五世纪——欧洲西南端的伊比利亚半岛?

　　公元十五世纪后期——欧洲意大利半岛的理水方式和园林小品的产生?

　　公元十七世纪——法国的中轴线对称规整的园林布局?

　　公元十七世纪末——法国尽量运用一切文化艺术手段来宣扬君威?

　　公元十八世纪初期——英国的风景式园林的盛行?

　　公元十八、十九世纪——靳诺特风格和英国风格的平行发展?

　　公元十九世纪中叶——植物研究成为专门的学科，大量花卉开始在经景观中运用?

　　公元十九世纪后期——大工业的发展，郊野地区开始兴建别墅园林?

　　二十世纪以来（一战以后）——现代流派的迭兴 产生了现代园林?

　　公元前三千多年——地中海东部沿岸古埃及产生世界上最早的规则式园林?

　　地中海东部沿岸地区是西方文明发展的摇篮。公元三千多年，古埃及在北非建立奴隶制国家。尼罗河沃土冲积，适宜于农业耕作，但国土的其余部分都是沙漠地带。对于沙漠居民来说，在一片炎热荒漠的环境里有水和遮荫树木的“绿洲”作为模拟的对象。尼罗河每年泛滥，退水之后需要丈量土地，因而发明了几何学。于是，古埃及人也把几何的概念用之于园林设计。水池和水渠的形状方整规则，房屋和树木佾都按几何形状加以安排，是为世界上最早的规整式园林设计。?

　　公元前五百年——古希腊的雅典城邦及罗马别墅园宅园?

　　1.古希腊的雅典城邦?

　　古希腊由许多奴隶制的城邦国家组成。公元前五百年，以雅典城邦为代表的完善的自由民主政治带来了文化、科学、艺术的空前繁荣，园林的建设也很兴盛。古希腊园林大体上可以分为三类：第一类是供公共活动浏览的园林：早先原为体育竞技场，后来，为了遮荫而种植的大片树丛逐渐开辟为林荫道，为了灌溉而引来的水渠逐渐形成装饰性的水景。到处陈列着体育竞赛优胜者的大理石雕像，林荫下设置坐椅。人们不仅来此观看体育活动，也可以散步、闲谈和游览。政治学家在这里发表演说，哲学家在这里辩论，为此而修建专用的厅堂，另外还有音乐演奏台以及其他公共活动设施。但这种颇似与现代“文化休息公园”的公共园林存在的时间并不长，随着古希腊民主政体的衰亡而逐渐消失。第二类是城市的住宅，四周以柱廊围绕成庭院，庭院中散置水池和花木。第三类是寺庙园林即以神庙为主体的园林风景区，例如德尔菲圣山（ The Mountaiin Sanctuary of Delphi ）。?

　　2.罗马别墅花园?

　　罗马继承古希腊的传统而着重发展了别墅园（ Villa Garden ）和宅园这两类，别墅园的修建在郊外和城内的丘陵地带，包括居住房屋、水渠、水池、草地和树林。当时的一位官员和著作家的 Pliny 对此曾有过生动的描写：“别墅园林之所以怡人心神，在于那些爬满常春藤的柱廊和人工栽植的树丛；晶莹的水渠两岸缀以花坛，上下交相辉映。确实美不胜收。还有柔媚的林荫道、敞露在阳光下的洁池、华丽的客厅、精制的餐室和卧室 ……. 这些都为人们在中午和晚上提供了愉快安谧的场所。庞贝（ pompei ）古城内保存着的许多宅园遗址一般均为四合庭院的形式，一面是正厅，其余三面环以游廊，在游廊的墙壁上画上树木、喷泉、花鸟以及远景等的壁画，造成一种扩大空间的感觉。?

　　公元七世纪——阿拉伯人建立的伊斯兰大帝国（412—1998）?

　　公元七世纪，阿拉伯人征服了东起印度河西到伊比利亚半岛的广大地带，建立一个横跨亚、非、拉三大洲的伊斯兰大帝国，虽然后来分裂成许多小国，，但由于伊斯兰教教义的约束，在这个广大的地区内仍然保持着伊斯兰文化的共同特点。阿拉伯人早先原是沙漠上的游牧民族，祖先逐水草而居的帐幕生涯，对“绿洲”和水的特殊感情在园林艺术上有着深刻的反映；另一方面又受到古埃及的影响从而形成了阿拉伯园林的独特风格；以水池或水渠为中心，水经常处于流动的状态，发出轻微悦耳的声音。建筑物大半通透开畅，园林景观具有一定幽静的气氛。?

　　公元十四世纪——伊斯兰园林的鼎盛 印度莫卧儿园林?

　　公元十四世纪是伊斯兰园林的鼎盛时期。此后，在东方演变为印度的莫卧儿的两种形式：一种是以水渠、草地、树林、花坛和花池为主体而成对称均齐的布置，建筑居于次要的地位。另一种则突出建筑的形象，中央为殿堂，围墙的四周有角楼，所有的水池、水渠、花木和道路均按几何对称的关系来安排。著名的泰姬陵即属后者的代表。?

　　公元十五世纪——欧洲西南端的伊比利亚半岛（412—1998）?

　　欧洲西南端的伊比利亚半岛上的几个伊斯兰王国直到十五世纪才被西班牙的天主教政权统一。由于地理环境和长期的安定局面，园林艺术得以持续的发展伊斯兰传统并吸收罗马的若干特点而融冶与一炉。格拉那达的阿尔罕伯宫即为典型的例子。这座由许多院落组成的宫苑都位于地势险要的山上，建筑物除居住用房外大部分马蹄形券洞甚至可以看到苑外的群峰。再加上穿插引流的水渠和水池，整座宫殿充满了“绿洲”的情调。宫内园林以庭院为主，采取罗马宅院四合庭院的形式，其中最精彩的是拓溜园（Ｃ out of Myriles ）和狮子院（ Court of Lions ）。拓溜园的中庭纵横一个长方形水池，两旁是修剪得很整齐的拓榴树篱。水池中摇曳着马蹄形券廊的倒影，显示一派安详的安谧亲切的气氛。方整宁静的水面与暗绿色的树篱对比着精致繁荣，色彩明亮的建筑雕塑，又予人一种生机勃勃的感受。狮子院四周均为马蹄形券廊，纵横两条水渠贯穿全院，水渠的交汇处即庭院的中央有一个的喷泉，它的基座上雕刻着十二个大理石狮像（伊斯兰教的教规禁止以动物作装饰题材，这十二个狮像是后来加上去的）。阿尔罕伯拉宫的这种理水手法给予后来的法国园林以一定程度的启示。?

　　公元十五世纪后期——欧洲意大利半岛的理水方式和园林小品的产生?

　　十五世纪是欧洲商业资本的上升期，意大利出现了许多以城市为中心的商业城邦。政治上的安定和经济上繁荣必然带来文化的发展。人们的思想从中世纪宗教中解脱出来，摆脱了上帝的禁锢，充分意识到自己的能力和创造力?！叭诵缘慕夥拧苯岷隙怨畔＠奥蘼聿永梦幕闹匦氯鲜?，从而开创了意大利“文艺复兴”的高潮，园林艺术也是这个文化高潮里面的一部分。?

　　意大利半岛三面濒海而多山地，气候温和，阳光明媚。积累了大量财富的贵族、大主教、商业资本家们再城市修建华丽的住宅，也在郊外经营别墅作为休闲的场所，别墅园遂成为意大利文艺复兴园林中的最具代表性的一种类型。别墅园林多半建立在山坡地段上，就坡势而作成若干的台地，即所谓的台地园。园林的规划设计一般都由建筑师担任，因而运用了许多古典建筑的设计手法。主要建筑物通常位于山坡地段的最高处，在它的前面沿山坡而引出的一条中轴线上开辟一层层的台地，分别配置?？?、平台、花坛、水池、喷泉、雕像。各层台地之间以蹬道相联系。中轴线两旁栽植高耸的丝杉、黄杨、石松等树丛作为园林本生与周围自然环境的过度。站在台地上顺着中轴线的纵深方向眺望，可以收摄到无限深远的园外借景。这是规整式与风景式相结合而以前者为主的一种园林形式。?

　　理水的手法远较过去丰富。每与高处汇聚水源作贮水池，然后顺坡势往下引注成为水瀑，平濑或流水梯（ W ater Stair ） ， 在下层台地则利用水落差的压力作出各式喷泉，最低一层平台地上又汇聚为水池。此外，常有欣赏流水落差的压力作出各式喷泉，最低一层台地上又汇聚为水池。此外。常有为欣赏流水声音而设的装置，甚至有意识地利用激水之声构成音乐的旋律（Ｗ ater Organ ） .?

　　作为装饰点缀的“园林小品”也极其多样，那些雕镂精致的石栏杆、石坛罐、?？?、碑铭以及为数众多的、以古典神话为题材的大理石雕像，它们本身的光亮晶莹衬托着暗绿色的树丛，与碧水蓝天相掩映，产生一种生动而强烈的色彩和质感的对比。?

　　意大利文艺复兴式园林中还出现一种新的造园手法——绣毯式的植坛 (Parterre) 既在一块大面积的平地上利用灌木花草的栽植镶嵌组合成各种纹样图案，好象铺在地上的地毯。?

　　公元十七世纪——法国的中轴线对称规整的园林布局?

　　十七世纪，意大利文艺复兴式园林传入法国。法国多平原，有大片天然植被和大量的河流湖泊。法国人并没有完全接受台地园的形式，而是把中轴线对称均齐的整齐式的园林布局手法运用于平地造园。?

　　公元十七世纪末——法国尽量运用一切文化艺术手段来宣扬君威?

　　十七世纪末，欧洲资本主义的原始积累加速进行着，君主专制政权成了资产阶级和就贵族共同镇压农民和城市平民的国家机器。法国在当时已经是世界上最强大的中央集权的君主国家，国王路易十四建立了一个绝对君权的中央政府，尽量运用一切文化艺术手段来宣扬君主的权威。宫殿和园林作为艺术创作当然也不例外，巴黎近郊的凡尔塞宫（Versallei) 就是一个典型的例子。?

　　凡尔塞宫占地极广，大约有六百余公顷。是路易十四仿照财政大臣副开的围攻园，的样式而建成的，包括“宫”和“苑”两部分。广大的苑林区在宫殿建筑的西面，由著名的造园家靳诺特（ Andri Le Notre ）设计规划。它有一条自宫殿中央往西延伸长达二公里的中轴线，两侧大片的树林把中轴线衬托成为一条宽阔的林荫大道，自西向东一直消逝在无垠的天际。林荫大道的设计分为东西两段：西段以水景为主，包括十字型的大水渠和阿波罗水池，饰以大理石雕像和喷泉。十字水渠横碧的北段为别墅园“大特里阿农” (Grand Trianon)， 南端为动物饲养园。东端的开阔平地上则是左右对称布置的几组大型的“绣毯式植坛”。大林荫道两侧的树林隐藏地布列着一些洞府、水景剧场（ Water Theatre ）迷宫、小型别墅等，是比较安静的就近观赏的场所。树林里还开辟出许多笔直交叉的小林荫路，它们的尽端都有对景，因此形成一系列的视景线 (Vista) ，故此种园林又叫做视景园 (Vista Garden). 。中央大林荫道上的水池、喷泉、台阶、?？?、雕像等建筑小品以及植坛、绿篱均严格按对称均齐的几何格式布局，是为规整式园林的典范，较之意大利文艺复兴园林更明显的反映了有组织有秩序的古典主义原则。它所显示的恢弘的气概和雍容华贵的景观也远非前者所能比拟。?

　　公元十八世纪初期——英国的风景式园林的盛行?

　　英伦三岛多起伏的丘陵，十七、八世纪时由于毛纺工业的发展而开辟了许多牧羊的草场。如茵的草地、森林、树丛与丘陵地貌相结合，构成了英国天然风致的特殊景观。这种优美的自然景观促进了风景画和田园诗的兴盛。而风景画和浪漫派诗人对大自然的纵情讴歌又使得英国人对天然风致之美产生了深厚的感情。这种思潮当然会波及园林艺术，于是封闭的“城堡园林”和规整严谨的“靳诺特式”园林逐渐被人们所厌弃而促使他们去探索另一种近乎自然，反朴归真的新的园林风格——风景式园林。?

　　英国的风景式园林兴起于十八世纪初期。与靳诺特式的园林完全相反，它否定了纹样植坛、笔直的林荫道、方正的水池、整形的树木。扬弃了一切几何形状和对称均齐的布局，代之以弯曲的道路、自然式的树丛和草地、蜿蜒的河流，讲究借景和与园外的自然环境相融合。为了彻底消除园内景观景观界限，英国人想出一个办法，把园墙修筑在深沟之中即所谓“沉墙”。当这种造园风格盛行的时候，英国过去的许多出色的文艺复兴和靳诺特式园林都被平毁而改造成为风景式的园林。?

??? 风景式园林比规整式园林，在园林与天然风致相结合，突出自然景观方面有其独特的成就。但物极必反，却又逐渐走向另一个完全极端即完全以自然风景或者风景画作为抄袭的蓝本，以至于经营园林虽然耗费了大量的人力和资金，而所得到的效果与原始的天然风致并没有什么区别?？床坏蕉嗌偃宋庸さ牡闳荆浔居胱匀坏幢馗哂胗谧匀?。这种情况也引起了人们的反感。因此，从造园家列普顿 (Humphry Replom) 开始又使用台地、绿篱、人工理水、植物整形修剪以及日冕、鸟舍、雕像等的建筑小品；特别注意树的外形与与建筑形象的配合衬托以及虚实、色彩、明暗的比例关系。甚至有在园林中故意设置废墟、残碑、断蝎、朽桥、枯树以渲染一种浪漫的情调，这就是所谓的“浪漫派”园林。?

　　这时候，通过在中国的耶苏会传教士致罗马教廷的通讯，以圆明园为代表的中国园林艺术被介绍到欧洲。英国皇家建筑师张伯斯 (William Chambers) 两度游历中国，归来后著文盛谈中国园林并在他所设计的丘园 (Kew Garden) 中首次运用所谓“中国式”的手法，虽然不过是一些肤浅和不伦不类的点缀，终于也形成一个流派，法国人称之为“中英式”园林，在欧洲曾经盛行一时 。?

　　公元十八、十九世纪——靳诺特风格和英国风格的平行发展?

　　十八、十九世纪的西方园林可以说时靳诺特风格和英国风格这两大主流的并行发展、互为消长的时期，当然也产生出许多混合型的变体。?

　　公元十九世纪中叶——植物研究成为专门的学科，大量花卉开始在景观中运用?

　　十九世纪中叶，欧洲人从海外大量引进树木和花卉的新品种而加以驯化，观赏植物的研究遂成为一门专门的学科。花卉在园林中的地位愈来愈重要，很讲究花卉的形态、色彩、香味、花期和栽植方式。造园大量使用了花坛，并且出现了以花卉配置为主要内容的“花园”乃至以某一种花卉为主题的花园如玫瑰园、百合等。?

　　公元十九世纪后期——大工业的发展，郊野地区开始兴建别墅园林?

　　十九世纪后期，由于大工业的发展，许多资本主义国家的城市日愈膨胀、人口愈集中，大城市开始出现居住条件明显两极分化的现象。劳动人民聚居的“贫民窟”(Slum)环境污秽，嘈杂。即使在市政府设施完善的资产阶级住宅区也由于地价昂贵，经营宅园不易。资产阶级纷纷远离城市寻找清净的环境，加之以现代交通工具发达，百十里之遥朝发夕至。于是，在郊野地区兴建别墅园林成为一时风尚，十九世纪末到二十世纪是这类园林最为兴盛的时期。?

　　当时的许多学者已经看到城市建筑过于稠密和拥挤所造成的后果特别是终年居住在贫民窟里面的工人阶级迫切需要优美的园林环境作为生活的调剂。因此，在提出种种城市规划的理论和方案设想的同时也考虑到园林绿化的问题。其中霍华德（ E.Howard ）倡导的“花园城”不仅是很有代表性的一种理论，而且在英国、美国都有若干实践的例子但并未得到推广。至于其他形形色色的学说则大都是资本主义制度下不易实现的空想。另一方面，在资产阶级居住区却也相应出现了一些新的园林类型：比较早的如象伦敦花园广场；稍后，纳许将公园纳入住宅区的规划中。?

　　二十世纪以来（一战以后）——现代流派的迭兴 产生了现代园林?

　　第一次世界大站以后，造型艺术和建筑艺术中的各种现代流派迭兴，园林也受到他们的潜移默化。把现代艺术和现代建筑的构图则运用于造园设计，好象靳诺特式园林之运用古典主义建筑的原则一样，从而形成一种新型风格的“现代园林”。这种园林的规划讲究自由布局和空间的穿插，建筑、水、山和植物讲究体形、质地、色彩的抽象构图，并且还吸收了日本庭园的某些意匠和手法。现代园林随着现代建筑和造园技术的发达而风行于全世界，至今仍方兴未艾。